Biotechnology is a science that uses living organisms, cells, or biological systems to develop products and technologies for human welfare.

It involves two main aspects:

• Genetic Engineering – Altering genes to create desired traits or products.
• Bioprocess Engineering – Growing these modified organisms in controlled conditions to extract useful products (like medicines, enzymes, hormones)

Biotechnology and Its Applications – Complete NEET 2026 Notes

Principles and Process of Biotechnology

Biotechnology primarily uses a method called Recombinant DNA Technology, also known as Genetic Engineering.

What is Recombinant DNA (rDNA) Technology?

It is the method of combining DNA from two different sources (say, a human gene and a bacterial plasmid) to produce a useful product, such as insulin.

Main Steps of rDNA Technology:

Isolation of Genetic Material (DNA):

• The gene of interest (e.g. insulin-producing gene) is isolated from a donor cell.
• DNA is extracted using enzymes like lysozyme, protease, ribonuclease.

Cutting DNA at Specific Locations:

• Done using restriction enzymes (molecular scissors) like EcoRI, HindIII
• These enzymes recognize specific sequences (palindromes) and cut them.

Insertion into a Cloning Vector:

• A vector (like plasmid or bacteriophage) carries the foreign gene.
• The gene and vector are joined using DNA ligase (molecular glue).

Introduction into Host Cells:

The recombinant DNA is introduced into a host organism (usually E. coli) using methods like:

• Heat shock
• Electroporation
• Microinjection

Selection and Multiplication:

• Only transformed cells are selected using selectable markers like antibiotic resistance.
• These cells are cultured in a bioreactor to multiply and produce the product.

Expression of the Gene:

• The host organism expresses the foreign gene and produces the desired protein.

Key Tools:

• Restriction Enzymes – Cut DNA (e.g. EcoRI, BamHI)
• DNA Ligase – Joins DNA fragments
• Vectors – Plasmids, bacteriophages, cosmids
• Host Cells – Usually bacteria like E. coli, or yeast

Applications of Biotechnology in Health

1. Genetically Engineered Insulin (Humulin):

• Earlier, insulin was taken from animal pancreas (pigs, cows), which sometimes caused allergic reactions.
• Using biotechnology, the human insulin gene was inserted into E. coli.
• These bacteria now produce Humulin, a human-compatible insulin.

How?

• The insulin gene has two parts: A and B chains.
• Each chain is produced separately in bacteria and later joined using chemical methods.

2. Gene Therapy:

• Used to treat genetic disorders by replacing a faulty gene with a functional one.
• Example: ADA Deficiency (Adenosine Deaminase Deficiency)
• The ADA gene is inserted into the patient’s bone marrow cells using a retrovirus.
• These cells are grown in a lab and reinjected into the patient’s body.
• It helps restore immune function in SCID patients.

3. Vaccines Using Biotechnology:

• Recombinant vaccines are made using genetically engineered microbes.
• Example: Hepatitis B vaccine made using yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae).

4. Molecular Diagnosis (Advanced NEET Concept):

Detect diseases even before symptoms appear using PCR (Polymerase Chain Reaction), ELISA.

Applications in Agriculture

1. Genetically Modified Organisms (GMOs):

GMOs are crops or animals with foreign genes inserted into them.

Benefits:

• Resistance to pests and disease
• Increased productivity and yield
• Tolerance to drought/salt
• Improved nutritional quality

2. Bt Crops:

• Bt stands for Bacillus thuringiensis, a bacterium that produces Cry proteins toxic to certain insects.
• Example: Bt Cotton
• The cry gene is inserted into cotton.
• The plant produces a toxin that kills bollworm by damaging its midgut.

3. Golden Rice & Other GM Crops:

• Golden Rice – Rich in beta-carotene (Vitamin A precursor).
• Flavr Savr Tomato – Delayed ripening; improved shelf life.

4. Transgenic Animals:

Animals that carry foreign genes.

• Uses: Rosie – A cow that produced milk rich in human protein α-lactalbumin.
• Used to study diseases like cancer, diabetes, Parkinson’s.
• Can also be used to produce pharmaceuticals (biopharming).

Biosafety Issues, Biopiracy, and Patents

1. Biosafety:

• Ensures that genetically modified products do not harm human health or the environment.
• In India, GEAC (Genetic Engineering Appraisal Committee) regulates these safety checks.

2. Biopiracy:

When multinational companies use traditional knowledge or biological resources of a country without permission.

Examples:

• Neem (India’s medicinal plant) – patented by a foreign company.
• Turmeric – known for wound healing, was also patented.

3. Patents:

• Legal protection to inventions.
• Raises ethical issues if patents are applied to life forms.
• India introduced Biological Diversity Act 2002 to prevent misuse and promote fair sharing of benefits.

NEET-Ready Summary Table

Final Mnemonics & Revision Aids

rDNA Steps: I C L T S E

• Isolation, Cutting, Ligation, Transfer, Selection, Expression

Bt = Cry = Cell rupture = Insect death

Insulin = A chain + B chain = Human-compatible

Conclusion

Biotechnology is one of the most application-based, highly conceptual and PYQ-rich chapters in NEET Biology.

To ace this chapter:

• Master rDNA process & enzymes
• Understand Bt crops & GMOs
• Memorize insulin production steps
• Focus on gene therapy, vaccines, and bioethics

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